Semantics is the study of meaning in language, or studying how words refer to things.
Lexical semantics is the study of how words mean. Compositional semantics "...is the study of how words and syntax work together to make sentences mean" (Cruzan & Adams, 2012, p.204). "Most of the time, we speak and understand speech perfectly well without consciously considering all these levels of meaning. But from a linguistic point of view, the nature of meaning cannot be taken for granted" (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 203). Our personal experiences in life give meaning to our words. Words get their meaning from sentences and discourse, as well as from cultural and physical context, and words lose their meaning when we take them from the context in which they occur (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 205). The meaning of a sentence is determined by syntax, not by adding up the meaning of the words in the sentence.
Example: Jessie doesn't like beer and Beer doesn't like Jessie are sentences with the same words, but their meanings are quite different (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 206).
Polysemy is a word which has several rooted related meanings. Example: dog (a pet), dog (a hot dog), or dogs(feet) We can "...know how to assign various meanings to the same symbol or signifier, depending on the context. We observe physical context; we watch for discourse cues like tone and gesture; we guess at speakers' intentions, and much more" (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 207).
Idioms are phrases that make up an expression whose meaning cannot be determined by the words connected in the phrases. Example: a piece of cake, off the wall, hit the books, hit the sack, saved by the bell, or being tongue tied Idioms are sometimes metaphorical coming from literature, or coming from a "shared cultural knowledge" Example: What's up? (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 207).
Metaphors use "[f]igurative language in which a word or phrase that designates one thing is applied to another as a form of comparison" (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 501). Example: feeling down, running out of time, crazy about someone When students become aware of the use of metaphors, it will help them develop strategies to help them think critically about information they receive (Denham & Lobeck, 2005, p. 161). Teachers should consider that metaphors in our culture are not always the same as metaphors in another culture.
Ontological Metaphors are metaphors in which abstract concepts such as emotions and activities are compared to concrete objects (Denham & Lobeck, 2005, pp. 163-164).
- Container and Substance Metaphors - Humans can be pictured as containers and the same principle can be applied to abstract concepts such as the mind, "...(in my mind/out of mind), the visual field (in sight/out of sight, coming into view) and states such as love (I'm in love), trouble, shape, and depression....Activities are often characterized metaphorically as substance - running (a lot of running). Emotions are commonly talked of as if there were substances. The body is a container filled with emotions; we are 'filed with' excitement or anger....'let off steam', 'blow up', and 'go red in the face'..."(Denham & Lobeck, 2005, p.164). "The basic metaphor for anger is heat..."(Denham & Lobeck, 2005, p. 165).
- Personification Metaphors -"Here the entity is characterized as a person. As a person, we can then talk about the entity in terms of human activities" (Denham & Lobeck, 2005, p. 165). Examples: "...life cheating us, giving birth to a new idea, an illness defeating a person" (Denham & Lobeck, 2005, p. 165)
Orientational Metaphors - when"...one metaphorical concept 'organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another' (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 14) They are mainly
concerned with orientation: up/down, in/out, front/back, on/off, central/peripheral...Examples: HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN (e.g., I'm feeling down/low/depressed), CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN (e.g. wake up), GOOD IS UP; BAD IS DOWN, RATIONAL IS UP; EMOTIONAL IS DOWN, VIRTUE IS UP; VICE IS DOWN, MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN, HEALTH IS UP; ILLNESS IS DOWN" (Denham & Lobeck, 2005, p. 165).
Structural Metaphors are "...metaphors in which one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. Hence, in ARGUMENT IS WAR, the concept of argument is structured in terms of the activities carried out in conducting war (to attack a point, to defend a position, to win/lose an argument)...(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)" (Denham & Lobeck, 2005, p. 166).
Teachers of English language learners need to know that"...other cultures do not necessarily give priority to the UP-DOWN orientation; for some, balance and centrality are more important. Western societies often have the orientation ACTIVE IS UP and PASSIVE IS DOWN as dominant; other cultures reverse this (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 24) (Denham & Lobeck, 2005, p.166)."The central metaphor in traditional Chinese medicine is BALANCE. Equilibrium is good health and imbalance bad health. The experimental basis is two pivoted weights, balanced when equal. The metaphorical concepts are yin and yang. Health is a series of balances, soft-hard, cool-hot, and imbalance is caused by a lack or excess of one or both of yin/yang elements"(Denham & Lobeck, 2005, p. 168). In our culture we would say "...CURING ILLNESS IS A FIGHT...", but the Chinese culture has the metaphor,"...ILLNESS IS AN IMBALANCE..." (Denham & Lobeck, 2005, p. 168).
Metaphors are important in the English language. Teachers can compare metaphors in a student's language such as in Spanish, to metaphors in English, such as I am pulling your leg (English) to I am taking your hair (Spanish)or Pay attention! (English) to Borrow attention! (Spanish). Students can write down metaphors in English and can discuss the metaphors with their families at home. The next day they can teach their classmates and their teacher what the metaphors are in their particular language.
A lexical field is a group of words that belong together in a relationship. Example: dog, cat, and hamster are all pets (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 212) "Words inevitably belong to lexical fields, and part of knowing their meaning is understanding their relationship to other words in their lexical fields" (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 213).
When working with ELL students it is beneficial for words to be taught in categories. It is easier for students to remember words when they are grouped or categorized when teaching vocabulary on worksheets. A lesson could be based on a simple diagram for lexical fields in which words for pets can be written within a circle, and animals which are not pets can be written on the outside of the circle (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 212). ESL teachers may find that students coming from some cultures may not understand the concept of animals for pets as we have in the United States.
In the video Teaching Vocabulary to ELLs, 7th and 8th grade history teacher, Douglas Wilkins said that he has to think about what he is saying would mean to an ELL student because the way we categorize words in English could be so different from the way they categorize in other cultures. Mr. Wilkins also said that a student could be "hung up" on something he had said ten minutes earlier (Wilkins, n.d., https://collab.itc.virginia.edu/access/content/group/b6ce3a55-109c-48eb-920d-f6539507b178/Videos/6-2.html Available through EDIS 5423 English Linguistics online course).
Words can be related semantically by:
Often speakers use euphemisms in order to make something sound better than it is. For example, rather than saying someone died, they will say someone passed away. There are words also known as dysphemisms which are words spoken to deliberately to make something sound worse than it is. Words that are labels for ethnic groups fall into this category. Example: chink for someone Chinese Today, it is recognized that such words are offensive (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 226).
The term politically correct (PC) became popular with the political right in America in the eighties, claiming that liberals were the ones insisting on politically correct speech. Example: insisting on such terms as chairperson rather than chairman, etc (Curzan & Adams, 2012, pp.230-231) Political correctness has been debated for years. Conservatives are sincerely concerned
about change in language. Liberals sincerely want a fairer society. Curzan and Adams put it well, "In fact, what we choose to say and how we choose to say it can make a big difference in the lives of those around us" (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 232).
When working with ELL students it is beneficial for words to be taught in categories. It is easier for students to remember words when they are grouped or categorized when teaching vocabulary on worksheets. A lesson could be based on a simple diagram for lexical fields in which words for pets can be written within a circle, and animals which are not pets can be written on the outside of the circle (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 212). ESL teachers may find that students coming from some cultures may not understand the concept of animals for pets as we have in the United States.
In the video Teaching Vocabulary to ELLs, 7th and 8th grade history teacher, Douglas Wilkins said that he has to think about what he is saying would mean to an ELL student because the way we categorize words in English could be so different from the way they categorize in other cultures. Mr. Wilkins also said that a student could be "hung up" on something he had said ten minutes earlier (Wilkins, n.d., https://collab.itc.virginia.edu/access/content/group/b6ce3a55-109c-48eb-920d-f6539507b178/Videos/6-2.html Available through EDIS 5423 English Linguistics online course).
Words can be related semantically by:
- Hyponymy expresses hierarchical and parallel relationships. A hypernym is a more general term. A hyponym to the word dog would be more specific. Example: mutt, terrier and Labrador (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 213)
- Meronymy expresses the hierarchical semantic relationship of "whole to part". A meronym as a subordinate semantic relationship to the word dog, would be parts of a dog. Example: tail, whiskers, paws (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 214)
- Synonymy is a semantic relationship in which words very closely mean the same thing. They can be denotative or more literal, or connotative which is determined by things like experience, intention and context. Most synonyms cannot replace each other. There are only a few true synonyms. Example: cemetery and graveyard (Curzan & Adams, 2012, pp. 214-215)
- Antonymy is a semantic relationships in which words are opposites of each other in meaning (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 215). Antonyms that are gradable are at opposite end of a spectrum with stages in between. Example: fat and thin Antonyms that are nongradable are opposite with no concept in between. Example: married and single (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 215)
- Converseness is when reciprocal or joined pairs of words and "...the opposite of each word is implied in the meaning of each word". Example: parent and child (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 215)
- Homonymy - Homonyms are words that have the same spelling or pronunciation but very different meanings. If they share the same spelling they are called homographs. Example: sink: basin and sink: to go to a lower level. If they share the same pronunciation they are called homophones. Example: dove: a bird and dove: past tense of verb dive (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 215)
Often speakers use euphemisms in order to make something sound better than it is. For example, rather than saying someone died, they will say someone passed away. There are words also known as dysphemisms which are words spoken to deliberately to make something sound worse than it is. Words that are labels for ethnic groups fall into this category. Example: chink for someone Chinese Today, it is recognized that such words are offensive (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 226).
The term politically correct (PC) became popular with the political right in America in the eighties, claiming that liberals were the ones insisting on politically correct speech. Example: insisting on such terms as chairperson rather than chairman, etc (Curzan & Adams, 2012, pp.230-231) Political correctness has been debated for years. Conservatives are sincerely concerned
about change in language. Liberals sincerely want a fairer society. Curzan and Adams put it well, "In fact, what we choose to say and how we choose to say it can make a big difference in the lives of those around us" (Curzan & Adams, 2012, p. 232).